Course 3506

Erik Erikson

A theory of psychosocial development was one of Erikson's main contributions. In it he described a progression toward self-esteem. This theory has echoes of Piaget in that it is a theory of stages of development. There is also a similarity to Vygotsky's thought as, in Erikson's theory, a person's identity is strongly influenced by relationships with other people. An aspect of Erikson's work that makes it interesting to teachers at the secondary level is that it deals with the lifespan. The development of identity continues through our lives and is never finished. We have to struggle continually with our self-concept and, of course, for adolescents this is one of the largest developmental tasks which they face.

The following table gives a brief summary of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

Erikson saw psychosocial development in terms of critical periods during which aspects of a person's personality and identity will emerge. He characterized the stages in terms of dichotomies expressing the contrast between optimum and more negative results which could come from demands of the time periods. Thus, each stage can be seen as a developmental crisis whose resolution will influence a person's view of self and of society in general.

Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust (birth - 18 months). An infant who experiences positive interactions with people in the environment, interactions which satisfy the infant's basic needs, will develop trust. The "needs" mentioned here are more than food and shelter. They are more often related to warmth, comfort and caring. Unsatisfying interactions which fail to convey warmth and which do not meet the infant's needs result in a developmental crisis which is resolved in a negative way. The infant learns not to trust people. Harlow's studies with baby monkeys and "surrogate mothers" tend to support these ideas. The positive resolution of this stage is sometimes characterized as hope, although Erikson himself was hesitant about using that term.

Stage 2: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (18 months - 3 years). Children in this stage have the ability to move about. This leads to ability to explore the environment and a lessening of dependence on other people. When the explorations and "experiments" of a young child are met with encouragement or at least tolerance, the child develops autonomy and a sense of independence. This may require parents and other care givers to put up with the child taking objects off tables and shelves and making messes through inexpert attempts to "do it myself." Magazine pages may become crumpled and torn. More juice may end up on the table than in the cup. If a child is discouraged from exploring or trying to perform actions, or scolded for doing so, a sense of shame about the efforts and doubt about abilities will develop. Many mistakes are made in this period and many more will be made in the future, but they are an essential part of developing a sense of autonomy. Indirect teaching at this stage can be important. speaking clearly to children and getting them to anticipate "what happens next" in stories can help children in building a sense of autonomy, or of having an individual will. "Shielding" a child from making errors leads to a negative resolution of the developmental crisis of learning autonomy. Such children tend to become self-conscious in the sense of feeling completely exposed. They are fearful of doing something wrong (again) and being belittled or embarrassed.

Stage 3: Initiative versus Guilt (3 - 6 years). Exploration continues to be important in this stage. In addition to the autonomy of Stage 2, children now become task oriented, planning and actively pursuing specific ends rather than just randomly exploring. Children express this partly through imitation of what adults around them do. Beyond flipping the pages of a magazine for the pleasure of seeing the pictures, a child at this stage may pretend to be reading the magazine. A new form of exploration is available to children in this stage -- expressive language. Children can ask adults questions and learn from the answers. When children are encouraged to explore and their questions are answered adequately, their initiative is fostered and they develop a sense of purpose in life. Children who are discouraged from exploring and whose questions are brushed aside may learn to feel guilty about intruding on adults. Similarly, a child whose plans and actions are ridiculed may feel guilty of being inadequate.

Stage 4: Industry versus Inferiority (6 - 12 years). With the start of school, children experience performance expectations placed upon them in a manner and to a degree that they have not previously encountered. When children are encouraged to complete tasks and praised for their performance, they develop a sense of industry. They learn that they can do what is expected of them and that it is satisfying to be productive. This type of experience is also encountered outside of school. It is in this age range that many children encounter activities such as swimming lessons, summer camp and little league sports. (Yes, four-year-olds can be placed on a soccer field with a ball, but very few of them have any inkling of participating in a goal-directed game.) In school-based and community-based activities, we provide children with an opportunity to learn what it means and feels like to be competent. Children who are not successful in early school and other experiences, who are told directly and indirectly that they are not "measuring up," develop a sense of inferiority.

Stage 5: Identity versus Role Diffusion (adolescence). Adolescents look for identity -- a sense of individual uniqueness. They want, although they wouldn't say it this way, a sense of psychosocial well-being. They want recognition from those who count and a sense of knowing where they are going. This latter desire is often expressed through a career goal. With the onset of puberty and physical maturity emerges the need to come to terms with sexuality. When interactions with other people supports an adolescent's sense of "who I am," a sense of self-confidence and stability develops. Such an adolescent can feel at least somewhat at ease in the multiple roles of friend, child, student, leader and so on which must be played in the now expanding social realm which increasing maturity bring. The complexity of finding one's role is compounded by the cognitive developments (according to Piaget) which accompany this age range. It is now cognitively possible to entertain hypothetical situations, to see situations other than in terms of black and white. Adolescents become painfully aware that adults are not perfect, all-powerful or omniscient as they seemed to be during childhood. Yet these are the role models that are available to adolescents. Negative experiences which make the various roles seem to be at odds with one another, instead of producing a unitary, stable view of self, can lead to role diffusion. In this state, a perception of inconsistent expectations may leave an adolescent feeling fragmented. Adolescents may express role diffusion through adopting a negative identity. This may involve rebellion against authority or avoiding thought about life-style decisions. They may be disorganized, act impulsively and not be goal-oriented. Many will avoid commitment to schoolwork or to personal relationships. Some adolescents deal with the pressures of for life-style decisions by entering a state that Erikson called a moratorium. This is a suspension of decisions concerning long-term commitments. A moratorium may be used effectively to gain new experiences or encounter adventures. This can lead to more sound decisions when the moratorium ends. It used to be expected that upper-class European adolescents would enter a state of moratorium after completing their secondary education. This commonly took the form of "doing the tour" of the Continent. Various aspects of life were experienced which had previously not been encountered and which would likely not be a part of their future lives.

Stage 6: Intimacy versus Isolation (young adulthood). The personality of a young adult is strongly influenced by efforts to establish a close psychosocial relationship, intimacy, with another person. Often, it is during this period that people finish at least the initial portions of their formal education, seek work, and establish an independent life beyond their childhood families. Failure to form an intimate relationship leads to a sense of aloneness and isolation.

Stage 7: Generativity versus Stagnation (young adulthood - middle age). Generativity is a concern for future generations. For many, childbearing and the nurturing that this brings become central during this stage. Career versus family decisions are huge problems for many people at this time in life. When these things are not successfully resolved, a feeling of stagnation -- that one has reached a dead end -- may result.

Stage 8: Integrity versus Despair (later adulthood - old age). Integrity involves a sense of how you fit into your culture and finding your place in it to be satisfying. People who are not satisfied with their role in the culture may come to feel that time is too short and that alternate ways to achieve integrity are no longer available. This leads to despair.

These brief notes on the stages of development highlight the contrasts between positive and negative resolutions of the challenges which the stages bring. It would be a mistake to believe that each stage must be resolved in an entirely positive or negative manner. Likely all people experience each stage with some mixture of positive and negative outcomes. We aim to have the positives outweigh the negatives. Also, a negative resolution of any stage does not doom a person to an inadequate life. People are resilient and constantly changing. A problem at one stage may be overcome later. However, amassing many mainly negative experiences at various stages of development does predispose one to difficulties in life.

The following list of suggestions is "borrowed" from a textbook and is offered for thought and discussion. It is NOT meant to be a prescription for teacher behaviour.

How to Help Students Develop Positive Self-Concepts

1. Use the dichotomies as a basis for interpreting your observations of students. For instance, does a student's behaviour indicate a lack of industry? a sense of inferiority? confusion about his or her future?
2. Look for or design opportunities that encourage independent action on the part of students. For example, you might have students interview other students, parents, other teachers , and/or friends outside school on some appropriate topic.
3. Reward independent efforts. Using the interview example, even if the interview is not particularly fruitful, you can praise the effort it took to conduct the interview. While discussing reasons why an interview was not successful, you can point out that the student's efforts have provided a learning opportunity that would not have existed otherwise.
4. Recognize that gender differences may exist. Specifically, keep in mind that research suggests that females may be as concerned with interpersonal relationships as they are with achievement. This difference should be taken into account when interpreting observations of student behaviour.
5. Use parent conferences to determine whether and in what ways students are encouraged at home.
   [McCowan, R.R. et al. (1999) Educational psychology: A learning-centred approach to classroom practice. Second Canadian Edition. Scarborough, ON: Allyn & Bacon, p. 74.]
   
   

Return to the Developmental Theory Page

Return to the Course 3506 Home Page