Author: Cheryl Cottle
Date: 8/2/96
© Copyright, 1996.
Rosenberg (1987) postulates that, the Instructional Systems Design model (ISD) provides a procedure for systematically identifying and manipulating significant components of the instructional process, the goals of which are increased learning and improved performance. The ISD model provides a paradigm for designing meaningful and effective training, with all its component parts working harmoniously to achieve the training goal (Rosenberg, 1987). ISD presupposes that a decision to develop training to solve a performance problem has already been made and that training has been determined to be the best solution (Rosenberg, 1987) .
The ISD model consists of five major phases. The first four phases are analysis, design, development, and implementation. These four phases are sequential, with the output of one phase, the inputs to the next. The fifth phase is evaluation; it is an interactive process which is applied throughout the ISD model (Rosenberg, 1987).
Analysis is like research, and the skills required to conduct an instructional analysis are similar to those of an investigator. More often than not, the training problem at this stage is still unclear. The purpose of this phase is to define the problem by precisely specifying the training needs that exist and turning them into useful information for training and development (Rosenberg, 1987). In order to determine the "exact nature" (p. 6) of training needs, a multidimensional approach called a needs assessment is used (Rosenberg, 1987) . While there may be a variety of factors to consider, the basic ISD model centers around three types of needs: organization, learners and job. Organizational needs are used to determine the exact mission and goal of the organization, since normally they are defined in very nebulous term such as "to improved productivity" , "to create better morale" , "to be a leader in the market place" (Rosenberg, 1987:7). Generally, the organizational goal is not defined in specific operational terms; exactly what they do to achieve their goals is not defined. An assessment of the organization will determine which employee gets trained, which jobs are subjects of training and development, and the availability of personnel and resources to get the development job done (Rosenberg, 1987). The analysis of organizational needs can provide an important perspective for the development process.
The learners needs are more specifically related to the training problem. Some of the learner characteristics analysed in this phase include, intellectual and academic background, previous experiences and training, current technical knowledge and abilities, motivations, career orientation, age, sex, physical disabilities and any current or expected job performance deficiencies (Rosenberg, 1987). Assessment used are interviews with supervisors and staff specialists who have designed the job or developed the equipment which is the subject of the training (Rosenberg, 1987). Other approaches such as observing, interviewing and testing job incumbents are used to determine needs and any performance deficiencies are also part of the assessment process (Rosenberg, 1987).
Job needs are analysed to determine the exact performance requirements for which training is contemplated. Through a process of task analysis, the basic steps in the performance of a job are broken down into their component task. Specific skills and knowledge are derived, which form the basis for the content of the training (Rosenberg, 1987). The task analysis compares what the learner knows, as it relates to performing the job task, against what they need to know to perform the job. The gap between what is known and what they need to know to perform the task becomes the building block for the next ISD design. The tasks can be either one of performance and skills deficits.
Evaluation of this phase determines how well the research is conducted, and how accurate the findings are, in relation to the impending problem. If, by chance, there are any inconsistencies and inaccuracy in the finding, modification must be made to correct any inconsistencies that may affect the design phase and consequently the effectiveness of the training as it applies to the organization, the learner and the job.
The design phase is the "blueprint" which guides the creation the all training and or teaching materials and strategies (p. 8). The design phase includes, the instructional objectives, test specifications, material specification, instructional strategy and evaluation of the over all process. The instructional objectives are the preliminary output of the design process. Instructional objectives are specified in observable terms, describing exactly the end-of-course content. They are derived from the skills and knowledge which make up the course content and serve as a bridge between the need for training and the training itself (Rosenberg, 1987). Testing specification are identified in conjunction with the instructional objectives. It measures, behaviour related to their learning and performance needs. When to test, how often to test, testing format, types of testing techniques, testing risks, level of job-like simulation, equipment/simulators required, test time and students achievement criteria are noted in the test specification. Material specification identifies what type of media will be used to facilitate instruction. They are concomitant with teaching and learning, as well as learners learning styles. Further, they are dependent on resources that are available. Instructional strategy details how the training will be delivered (Rosenberg, 1987). The instruction can be either instructor-led, group-paced or individualized. Additional decisions about the structure and practice, lab, and case-group work, the type of question to facilitate learning, through reflection and recall to facilitate learning, the difficulty of challenge, testing, feedback, and remediation as well as acceleration programs (Rosenberg, 1987).
Evaluation at the design phase of the ISD model involves the continuing assessment of how needs are translated into training. the process at this stage is two-fold. It identifies and validates that the instructional objectives are clear reflections of the performances requirements as detailed in the course content. And, verifies that the tests, material and strategies to be employed in the training are designed to facilitate trainees/students attaining the objectives (Rosenberg, 1987).
Assuming that the test, informational materials, media and strategies are specified, the production process can proceed smoothly. However, as training materials are developed they should be evaluated to determine their effectiveness in terms of how well they can meet the training needs and the instructional objectives.. Evaluation in the development phase of the ISD model is critical (Rosenberg, 1987). Thorough a process of "developmental or prototype testing" the training materials are tested to determine if they will work as intended (p. 9). Developmental testing involves review by content and instructional experts, as well as try-outs with small-groups of typical students. This type of testing is conducted to ascertain relevancy, accuracy, completeness, ease of use, ease of understanding, instructional effectiveness of training materials and methods (Rosenberg, 1987). Developmental testing allow the trainer to determine if any problems exist with the materials or the instructional, strategies before full scale implementation and exposure to the target population (Rosenberg, 1987). Evaluation at this phase, not only saves training dollars, but also pinpoints where the ISD process improvements can be made. The developmental process is a continuous and sometimes repetitive process within the development phase (Rosenberg, 1987).
Testing instruments are evaluated for their validity, in terms of relatedness to the content objectives and discriminates between students who have received training and those who have not. Testing is also conducted to determine reliability; that is to determine if similar results with similar students as well as identify any unambiguousness in their directions wording and structures. Students materials are tested with typical learners to assure they are complete and easy to use. It includes examining the format, writing style, level of difficulty and sequence of the materials, in addition to content accuracy and relevancy (Rosenberg, 1987). Instructor' material is tested to assure that complete details on how the course is delivered and how students are evaluated. A comprehensive set of instructor's materials assure continuity between the instructional strategies and the actual delivery of the training (Rosenberg, 1987). The development phase of the ISD process is complete when developmental testing indicate that all materials are produced according to the design specifications and that those materials perform as required in simulated training environment (Rosenberg, 1987).
The implementatuion phase of the ISD models affords the training and development team with the opportunity to observe and evaluate their program under actual training conditions. Two factors are considered in this phase, they are the instructor and the training facilities or environments. The instructor, should be a subject-matter -expert and a teacher in order to display confidence and subject matter command in the classroom. Further, they are more apt to communicate with the students and earn the student's respect. The setting or facilities also impact the training effectiveness. Classrooms and laboratory for small groups or large groups should be comfortable, free from distractions and accessible to the students when needed. Equipments, including the various media technologies, must be in working order and well suited for the facility in which they are to be used. Self-instructional media, such as computer terminal and multi-media kits should be designed for ease of student's use and facilitative of student-media interaction. These considerations should be examined and verified pruior to full-scale implementation for effective delivery of the instruction.
Evaluation, in this phase of the ISD model is both a short and long-term process. In the short-term, the evaluator is concerned with the readiness of the instructor, the facilities and the training materials for full-scale delivery. In addition, the performance of students during and at the end of training are of paramount importance. In the long-term, the evaluator is concerned with detecting any possible deterioration in the training. Monitoring of students performances and attitudes towards the course are recommended for the life of the training process. Problems once identified are referred to the appropriate phase of the ISD for revision (Rosenberg, 1987).
While the analysis, design and development phase of Instructional Systems Design have identifiable starting and ending points the implementation phase is an on-going process as long as the the training is delivered. While such long-range activities may be beyond the responsibilities of the original training developemnt team, they are well within the confines of ISD.
The design criteria that ISD model proposes can be applied to the design, development, and implementation of any training program, either educational or organizational. This model can also be applied to the design of a Computer-Mediated-Conferencing program using the Internet. In the design of a CMC program, the designer should pay careful attention to applying the various components of ISD to ensure that the objectives of the program are achieved. However, it is important that a "front-end analysis" is conducted to identify and ensure what the behavioral objective is (Rosenberg, 1987:6). The ISD model points out, that before the content material, delivery mode, strategies and techniques can be identified in an instructional delivery system, an analysis of the training needs should be conducted to identify and ascertain the organizational needs (Rosenberg, 1987) or the schools needs, curriculum goals and or mandates, learner needs, job/performance needs to ensure that the instructional objectives are clearly defined and the instructional informational material.
The rationale for using the Instructional Systems Design model (ISD) in the design of a CMC program will provide the designer with appropriate and exact data to design, develop, implement and evaluate the teaching and learning program. The evaluation phase at each phase, provides useful output information to aid in the process of the other to ensure that the over all system is effective. The approach takes into consideration, not only the delivery system, the informational material, the strategies and techniques used, but the learner and the behavioral goal or objective. The learner's needs, characteristics, learning styles, level of performance, and the entry level behavior are identified and addressed in the design and development phase to ensure that the program is tailored to meet the individual needs of the students or learners.